TÜRKİYE

General Description | History | Political Structure | Foreign Relations and European Union | Geography | Population & Provinces | Youth | Demographics | Economy | Education in Turkey

General Description

Turkey (in Turkish: Türkiye), officially the Republic of Turkey, is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in Southwestern Asia and the Balkan region of Southeastern Europe. Turkey borders eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan to the northeast; Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. In addition, it borders the Black Sea to the north; the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara to the west; and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.

The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular, constitutional republic whose political system was established in 1923. Turkey is a member state of the United Nations, NATO, OSCE, OECD, OIC, and the Council of Europe. Due to its strategic location, straddling Europe and Asia and between three seas, Turkey has been a historical crossroad between eastern and western cultures. It has been home to several great civilizations and the location of many battles between them.

History

Turkey has been called "The Cradle of Civilizations" and by traveling through this historic land, visitors will discover exactly what is meant by this phrase. The world's first known settlement, a Neolithic city at Çatalhöyük, dates back to 6.500 B.C. From the days of Çatalhöyük up to the present, Turkey boasts a rich culture that, through the centuries, has made a lasting impression on modern civilization.

Because of its geographical location the mainland of Anatolia has always found favor throughout history and is the birthplace of many great civilizations. It has also been prominent as a center of commerce because of its land connections to three continents and the sea surrounding it on three sides.

Being the heir to many centuries of cultures makes Turkey a paradise of information and cultural wealth. Hittites, Phrygians, Urartians, Lycians Ionians, Lydians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks and Ottomans have all made important contributions to the history of the area. Ancient sites and ruins scattered throughout the country give sufficient proof of each civilization's unique distinction.

The Turks, whose history are traced back to the 7 th century BC by archeological finds and documents, started to settle in Anatolia during the period of the Great Seljuk Empire in the early 11 th century. The traces of these civilizations can be seen in the remarkable ancient cities in all regions.

Preceding the modern Turkish Republic, the Ottoman State, founded in 1299 by Osman Bey, became a world empire, expanding rapidly to three continents after Sultan Mehmet II (the Conqueror) took Istanbul from Byzantine in 1453. In the 16th and 17th centuries, especially during the time of Süleyman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities. Its navy was also a powerful force in the Mediterranean.

Following years of decline, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in an alliance with Germany in 1914, in which it was ultimately defeated. After the war, western powers sought to partition the empire through the Treaty of Sevres. With the support of the Allies, Greece had occupied Izmir as provided for in the Treaty. On May 19, 1919 this prompted the beginning of a nationalist movement under the command of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself in the Battle of Gallipoli. Mustafa Kemal Pasha sought to revoke the terms of treaty signed by the Sultan in Istanbul. This involved mobilizing every available part of Turkish society in what would become the Turkish War of Independence.

By September 18, 1922 the occupying armies were repelled and the country saw the birth of a Turkish State. On July 24, 1923, with the Treaty of Lausanne, the Allies recognized the sovereignty of the new Turkish State with its present borders and accepted the abolishment of all political and economic fetters imposed on the ailing Ottoman Empire over centuries of decline. The Grand National Assembly proclaimed the Turkish Republic on October 29, 1923, electing victorious Mustafa Kemal the Republic's first President and bestowing on him the surname Atatürk which means “father of the Turks”. Atatürk and his comrades in arms instituted far reaching reforms, secularized the country and oriented it towards the West.

After Atatürk's death on November 10, 1938 Ismet Inönü, his closest companion and a soldier-statesman took over as President in the tumultuous years leading up to World war II and despite pressures from the warring sides, steered clear from the conflagration and its potentially disastrous consequences.

Turkey adopted a multi-party democracy in 1946 and four years later, the Democratic Party put an end to the 27-year rule of the Republican People's Party and its state dominated economic philosophy, swept to power in 1950 on a ticket of economic and political liberalism.

Political Structure

Politics of Turkey takes place in a framework of a secular parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Turkey is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The Members of the Assembly elect the President of the Republic for a seven year term.

Foreign Relations and European Union

Based on Atatürk's dictum “Peace at home, peace in the world”, Turkey has adopted the principle of establishing good relations with all countries, primarily with its neighbors. Another fundamental principle of its foreign policy is to respect the territorial integrity of all other countries and not to interfere in their internal affairs. Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations (UN) and the Council of Europe. It actively contributes to the world peace and international cooperation as a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).

Turkey is also currently in the process of becoming a full member in the European Union (EU), with which it has had an association agreement since 1964, and Customs Union since 1996. Turkey was accepted as a candidate for full EU membership at the Helsinki Summit on December 10-11, 1999. Following this development, Turkey intensified its harmonization process and keeping with the decision of EU leaders at their Brussels Summit in December 2004, the accession talks started on October 3, 2005.

Geography

Situated in the crossroads of 3 continents, Turkey forms a bridge between Europe and Asia, with the division between the two running from the Black Sea to the north down along the Bosphorus strait through the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles strait to the Aegean Sea and the larger Mediterranean Sea to the south. The territory of Turkey is roughly rectangular in shape and is has an area of 814,578 square km2, of which 97% occupies the Anatolian peninsula (also called Asia Minor) in Asia, and 3% are located in Europe. The land borders of Turkey total 2,573 kilometers and the coastlines total another 8,333 kilometers.

The country is characterized by seven geographical regions each of which has a different landscape: the Marmara, the Aegean, the Mediterranean, Central Anatolia, East Anatolia, Southeast Anatolia and the Black Sea.

Population & Provinces

Turkey's population, just over 67.8 million in the 2000 census, is currently estimated to have exceeded 70 million. 65% of the population lives in urban centers and 35% in rural areas. The once-rapid population growth rate has been curbed to 0.15%. Approximately 70% of the population is below the age of 35.

Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces. Each province is divided into subprovinces. The province usually bears the same name as the provincial capital. The most populated cities are Istanbul (around 10 million) – which is renown as the commercial and cultural centre of the country, Ankara-the capital city at the heart of the country and Izmir-an attractive city at the Aegean coast. Other important cities include Bursa, Adana, Trabzon, Malatya, Gaziantep, Erzurum, Kayseri, Izmit, Konya, Mersin, Eskisehir, Antalya and Samsun.

Youth

Turkey is a country with a young population. The 0-14 age group makes up 30% of the population, with 15-64 age group constituting 64.4% and the 65 and over accounting for the remaining 5.6%. In contrast, the 0-14 age group in EU countries, a mere 17.2%, is roughly half that of Turkey. Conversely, the 65+ age group in EU countries is almost three times that of Turkey with 15.7%.The government which provides effective services in the areas such as education, healthcare, work opportunities, social security, employment, productive use of leisure time and dissuading bad habits, has close cooperation with international organizations and youth services, primarily with the Council of Europe, the CDEJ, DSJ, UNESCO and ECO. Exchange schemes with foreign countries provide the young people with opportunities to exchange culture programs and knowledge with their foreign counterparts.

Demographics

The legal use of term "Turkish" (a citizen of Turkey) is different from the ethnic definition (an ethnic Turk). However, the majority of the Turkish population is of Turkish ethnicity. Besides the minorities that have legal status as defined and internationally recognized by the Treaty of Lausanne; namely Greeks, Armenians and Jews; ethnic groups include Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Bosniaks, Chechens, Circassians, Georgians, Hamshenis, Kabardins, Kurds, Laz, Ossetians, Pomaks, Romans and Zazas. While the term "minority" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, it is to be noted that the degree of intermixture between various ethnic groups outside the recognized minorities is high, the following generations generally adding into the melting-pot of the Turkish main body.

Due to a demand for an increased labour force in Post-World War II Europe, many Turkish citizens immigrated to Western Europe (particularly West Germany), forming a significant overseas population.

Economy

Turkey's economy is a complex mix of modern industry and commerce along with a traditional agriculture sector that in 2005 still accounted for 30% of employment. Turkey has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in basic industry, transport, and communications.

Turkey began a series of reforms in the 1980s designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulated system to a more private-sector, market-based model. The reforms spurred rapid growth, but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994, 1999, and 2001.

In 2002 and 2003, the reforms began to show results. With the exception of a period of market jitters in the run-up to the Iraq war, inflation and interest rates have fallen significantly, the currency has stabilized, and confidence has begun to return. Turkey's economy grew an average of 7.5% per year from 2002 through 2005 - one of the highest sustained rates of growth in the world, rivaling countries like China and India. Inflation and interest rates have fallen significantly, the currency has stabilized, government debt has declined to more supportable levels, and business and consumer confidence have returned.

Agriculture plays a very important role in the Turkish economy. The main crops are tobacco, tea, wheat, rice, grain, olives, sugar beets, pulse, hazelnuts, fruits and vegetables. Sheep are Turkey's most important livestock, and Turkey is one of the major cotton and wool producers.

Industry is developing rapidly and is directed mainly towards textiles, food processing, agricultural machinery, autos, electronics, mining (coal, chromate, copper, and boron), steel, petroleum, construction, lumber, and paper.

While exporting mainly apparel, foodstuffs, textiles, metal manufactures, and transport equipment, Turkey's main import commodities are machinery, chemicals, semi-finished goods, fuels, and transport equipment.

Turkey is also very rich in natural resources; the principle minerals extracted are being coal, iron ore, copper, chrome, mercury, gold, borate, limestone, marble, pumice, clay, sulfur, and hydropower.

In recent years, Turkey has become a major tourist destination in Europe, the fact which has delivered tourism a great importance in Turkish economy. With the rapid development of both summer and winter resorts, more and more people from around the world are able to enjoy the history, culture, and beautiful sites of Turkey. From swimming in the Mediterranean to skiing in Uludag, Turkey has something to offer every tourist.

Education in Turkey

In Turkey education is one of the primary responsibilities of the state and performed under the supervision and control of the Ministry of National Education. According to the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, everyone has the right to receive education. Individuals are educated by orienting them to various high schools and schools throughout their education, depending on their interests and capabilities.

The Turkish National Educational System is composed of two main sections: Formal Education and Non-formal Education in accordance with Basic Law No. 1739 for National Education.

Formal Education means the school system and comprises the institutions of preschool education, primary education, secondary education and higher education. Non- formal education includes all the activities organized outside or alongside the school.

Pre-School Education

Preschool education, which is optional and considered an adjunct to the public education system rather than an integral part of it, includes the education of children in the 3-5 years of age group. Preschool education is given in kindergartens, preparatory classrooms, application classrooms, day nurseries, nursery schools, day-care homes, and child care homes by various ministries and institutions. The children can benefit from these institutions on a full or half day basis and families pay a certain amount to have their children benefit from preschool education.

Primary Education

8 years of primary education is compulsory for every child and begins as soon as they reach the age of six and includes the education and training of children in the 6-14 years of age group. Uninterrupted education is carried out in these schools and the students who graduate are given a primary education diploma. The fact that primary education is compulsory for all male and female citizens and it is free of charge in the State schools is guaranteed in the Constitution. Furthermore, besides the State schools, there are also many private primary education schools providing students educational services in return for a tuition fee. In State schools students dress similarly in a type of uniform. Children who fail to reach the required standard at the end of any year may repeat it.

Secondary Education

Secondary education is classified in two categories of educational institutions, namely general high schools and vocational and technical high schools (lycées) where a minimum of three years of schooling is implemented after primary education.

General high schools are educational institutions that prepare students for institutions of higher learning. They implement a three-year program over and above primary education, and comprise students in the 15-17 year age group.

Vocational and technical high schools provide specialized instruction with the aim of training qualified personnel. The organization and periods of instruction of these schools are different. Some of them have a four-year program in which case the schooling age is 15-18.

The objective of secondary education is to provide the students with a common general culture at a minimum level and to prepare them to be ready for taking responsibility for the democratic society, to make them respectful of human rights and to prepare them for higher education or business life in the direction of their interests, abilities and capabilities.

Some of the secondary schools and the private secondary schools provide education in a foreign language, in conformity with the targets of the educational programs.

Higher Education

The Higher Education Law which went into effect in 1981 covers all higher education institutions and regulates their organization and functions. All universities and higher education institutions are connected to Higher Education Council (YÖK). Universities comprising several units are established by the state and by law as public corporations having autonomy in teaching and research. Furthermore, institutions of higher education, under the supervision and control of the state, can also be established by private foundations in accordance with procedures and principles set forth in the law. There are 53 state and 26 private (foundation) higher education institutions (HEI) as well as 4 military academies arid one police academy in Turkey. They are all recognized by the Higher Education Authority (YÖK) in Turkey therefore they are all eligible to participate in the Erasmus programme. Almost all HEI's have been awarded an Erasmus University Charter.

There is a tuition fee for higher education. The fee is quite small in state universities when compared with other countries, however it may vary between 5,000 – 11, 000 Euros in private universities. Successful students who lack financial means to continue their education are provided with full support by private individuals and organizations, as well as by the state.

Today, higher education institutions in Turkey fall into three categories: universities, military and police colleges and academies, and vocational schools affiliated with ministries.

The university is the principal higher education institution. It possesses academic autonomy and a public legal personality. It is made up of faculties, graduate schools, schools of higher education, conservatories, two-year vocational training schools and centers for applied work and research.

Anyone wishing to enroll in any undergraduate program of the universities must take a centrally administered University Entrance Exam (ÖSS) in Turkey which is held once a year. Students are accepted in accordance with the results of the examination. The examination is organized by The Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM). In accordance with the Higher Education Law, the center is attached to Higher Education Council (YÖK). International students who wish to pursue a full lime degree program in Turkish universities are required to take a separate exam, called YÖS (University Entrance Examination for Foreign Students), which is also administered by ÖSYM. The centralized system of access to higher education has been ratified from time to time. There has been a steady increase in the number of candidates for admission to Higher Education. In the recent years approximately 1.7 million students have applied to take the University Entrance Exam. Apparently the demand for higher education exceeds the number of places available at the universities.

Although education is commonly in Turkish, there are exceptions. The medium of instruction can be partially or totally in a foreign language (generally English) in some universities.

In the academic year 2003/04, there were approximately 1,800,000 undergraduate students registered at Turkish higher educational institutions including Open University students. There were 115,000 registered post graduate and PhD students studying during the same period. There was 78,804 academic staff working at these institutions.

Academic calendar generally starts in mid-September and ends in mid June, with a 2–4 weeks winter term break in January/February. Some universities also run summer schools during the months of July and August.

A typical bachelor degree can be achieved in 4 years. Graduate programs consist of master's and doctoral programs and are coordinated by institutes for graduate studies. Master's programs are specified as "with thesis" and "without thesis". Access to doctoral programs requires a master's degree.

In Turkey, the escalation of higher education in terms of both quality and quantity has been adopted as the major goal. Some Turkish universities are very strong in international links. They have been carrying out various international projects and student exchanges for years. With the establishment of Turkish National Agency, Turkish Universities have also started participating in EU Erasmus program, with a pilot project planned for 2003–2004. Many of Turkish Universities have significantly proceeded in ECTS work. Since 1 April 2004, Turkey has fully participated in the Community programmes of Socrates, Leonardo da Vinci and Youth. Since then, there has been a great interest and considerably increasing activities at Turkish Universities in terms of both student and teaching staff mobility. Statistics show that mobility will increase dramatically for the coming years in Turkey.

8 For further detailed information on Turkish education please visit:

www.meb.gov.tr   (Ministry of National Education)

www.yok.gov.tr (Turkish Higher Education Council)